Environment, the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival.

The Earth’s environment is treated in a number of articles. The major components of the physical environment are discussed in the articles atmosphere, climate, continental landform, hydrosphere, and ocean. The relationship between the principal systems and components of the environment, and the major ecosystems of the Earth are treated in the article biosphere. The significant environmental changes that have occurred during Earth’s history are surveyed in the article geochronology. The pollution of the environment and the conservation of its natural resources are treated in the article conservation. Hazards to life in the biosphere are discussed in the articles death, disease, and immune system.

Continental landform

Continental landform, any conspicuous topographic feature on the largest land areas of the Earth. Familiar examples are mountains (including volcanic cones), plateaus, and valleys. (The term landform also can be applied to related features that occur on the floor of the Earth’s ocean basins, as, for example, seamounts, mid-oceanic ridges, and submarine canyons.) Such structures are rendered unique by the tectonic mechanisms that generate them and by the climatically controlled denudational systems that modify them through time. The resulting topographic features tend to reflect both the tectonic and the denudational processes involved.

The most dramatic expression of tectonism is mountainous topography, which is either generated along continental margins by collisions between the slablike plates that make up the Earth’s lithosphere or formed somewhat farther inland by rifting and faulting. Far more subtle tectonic expressions are manifested by the vast continental regions of limited relief and elevation affected by gentle uplift, subsidence, tilting, and warping. The denudational processes act upon the tectonic “stage set” and are able to modify its features in a degree that reflects which forces are dominant through time. Volcanism as a syn-tectonic phenomenon may modify any landscape by fissure-erupted flood basalts capable of creating regional lava plateaus or by vent eruptions that yield individual volcanoes.

The denudational processes, which involve rock weathering and both erosion and deposition of rock debris, are governed in character by climate, whose variations of heat and moisture create vegetated, desert, or glacial expressions. Most regions have been exposed to repeated changes in climate rather than to a single enduring condition. Climates can change very slowly through continental drift and much more rapidly through variations in such factors as solar radiation.

In most instances, a combination of the foregoing factors is responsible for any given landscape. In a few cases, tectonism, some special combination of denudational effects, or volcanism may control the entire landform suite. Where tectonism exists in the form of orogenic uplift, the high-elevation topography depends on the nature of denudation. In humid or glacial environments whose geomorphic agencies can exploit lithologic variations, the rocks are etched into mountainous relief like that of the Alps or the southern Andes. In arid orogenic settings, the effects of aggradation and planation often result in alluviated intermontane basins that merge with high plateaus interrupted or bordered by mountains such as the central Andes or those of Tibet and Colorado in the western United States.

In continental regions where mountainous uplifts are lacking, denudational processes operate on rocks that are only slightly deformed—if they are sedimentary—and only moderately elevated. This produces broad basins, ramps, swells, and plains. These are most thoroughly dissected in rain-and-river environments (sometimes attaining local mountainous relief on uplifts). Elsewhere, they may be broadly alluviated and pedimented where mainly arid, or widely scoured and aggraded where glacial.

Minor denudational landforms are superimposed on the major features already noted. Where aridity has dominated, they include pediments, pans, dune complexes, dry washes, alluvial veneers, bajadas, and fans. Ridge-ravine topography and integrated drainage networks with associated thick soils occur where humid conditions have prevailed. Combinations of these features are widespread wherever arid and humid conditions have alternated, and either category may merge laterally with the complex suite of erosional and depositional landforms generated by continental glaciers at higher latitudes.

This article reviews the significant theories of landform genesis developed during roughly the past two centuries.

General Observations

Basic concepts and considerations

Landform evolution is an expression that implies progressive changes in topography from an initial designated morphology toward or to some altered form. The changes can only occur in response to energy available to do work within the geomorphic system in question, and it necessarily follows that the evolution will cease when the energy is consumed or can no longer be effectively utilized to induce further change. The latter steady state, or dynamic equilibrium, situation will then continue with little topographic change until the prevailing conditions cease or are disrupted, so that a new evolutionary sequence can begin.

The English poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson once wrote:

The hills are shadows, and they flow
From form to form, and nothing stands;
They melt like mist, the solid lands,
Like clouds they shape themselves and go.

Tennyson’s verse speaks well of the geomorphic necessities of time and landform change. Even the ancients were well aware of the ongoing effects of gravity, and it has long been realized that, given time and in the absence of opposing forces, gravity would pull the Earth’s surface roughness down to form a featureless subaqueous spheroid. Such an evolution would be simplicity in the extreme and may in fact foretell the eventual destiny of terrestrial landforms when internal processes that generate relief cease to operate some billions of years hence in response to growing entropy in the system.

Even now in regions where the uplifting and relief-creating mechanisms have been inoperative for several hundreds of millions of years, the lands have been reduced by denudation to low and often nearly featureless plains. Yet, it is clear that any modern theory of landform evolution must take into account the possibility of a periodic regeneration of continental elevations, particularly of large-scale relief features. For without such regeneration, there would be no continents or mountains even today, given their present rates of erosional destruction.

The history of landscape evolution theory is one of adapting concepts to new evidence of increasing complexity. This situation is quite apparent in the way thinkers and scientists have dealt with the processes within the Earth that oppose gravity and re-create land elevation and roughness. The existence of such processes was implicit in the writings of Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–c. 478 BCE), Herodotus (c. 484–420? BCE), and Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519). The culmination of ideas of continental renewal and relief genesis is found in the isostatic theory formulated by John Henry Pratt and George Biddel Airy of England during the mid-1800s and in the concepts of plate tectonics put forth by Harry H. Hess and Robert S. Dietz of the United States during the early 1960s. Periodic resurrection of the surface roughness of the Earth is an event that geologists continually plot, widely accept, and increasingly understand.

Over the years there have been many other ideas that have posed complications for geomorphic theory. Notable among these were notions of continental submergence by seas (proposed by Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon, about 1750), which had implications of relative sea-level changes and sedimentary leveling of submerged areas.

Theoretical matters were complicated further by suggestions during the 19th century that iceberg rafting of gravel during Noah’s Flood accounted for glacial “drift.” Since that time, the Noachian Deluge has lost much of its geomorphic appeal. Yet, sedimentary deposits laid down in ancient inland seas are widely acknowledged to account for much continental bedrock, and they underlie and create vast structural plains in areas such as Australia.

The geomorphic implications of volcanism were already widely appreciated in the 1700s, though they were not well integrated into modern tectonic mechanisms until 1961. Climate, however, is another story. Glacial theory was introduced during the early 1800s and was seen by many to have climatic and geomorphic implications. Nonetheless, the most popular theory of landform evolution of the past century, that proposed by the American geologist and geographer William Morris Davis (c. 1899), relegated continental glaciation to accidental status and gave no real consideration to the geomorphic effects of non-glacial climates. Until about 1950 this Davisian view held sway in geomorphology. Since then, research has shown beyond question that a variety of climatic effects can have a profound influence on landscape, that climates change (often with great frequency and intensity), and that virtually none of these events can be termed accidental.