From corvรฉe to toll Through the millennia, responsibility for financing and building roads and highways has been both a local and a national responsibility in the nations of the world. It is notable that this responsibility has changed along with political attitudes toward road building and has not rested easily with any party. Many roads…
When urban street paving became widespread in the latter half of the 19th century, the common paving materials were hoof-sized stone blocks, similarly sized wooden blocks, bricks, McAdamโs broken stone, and occasionally asphalt and concrete. McAdamโs broken stone provided the cheapest pavement, but its unbound surface was difficult to maintain and was usually either slimy or dusty…
Beginning in the 1840s, the rapid development of railroads brought the construction of lightweight Trรฉsaguet-McAdam roads to a virtual halt. For the next 60 years, road improvements were essentially confined to city streets or to feeder roads to railheads. Other rural roads became impassable in wet weather. The initial stimulus for a renewal of road…
The Lancaster Turnpike The first engineered and planned road in the United States was the Lancaster Turnpike, a privately constructed toll road built between 1793 and 1795. Connecting Philadelphia and Lancaster in Pennsylvania, its 62-mile length had a maximum grade of 7 percent and was surfaced with broken stone and gravel in a manner initially uninfluenced by the…
The master road builders In Europe, gradual technological improvements in the 17th and 18th centuries saw increased commercial travel, improved vehicles, and the breeding of better horses. These factors created an incessant demand for better roads, and supply and invention both rose to meet that demand. In 1585 the Italian engineer Guido Toglietta wrote a thoughtful treatise on a…
Europe and Asia At the zenith of the Roman Empire, overland trade joined the cultures of Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor, China, and India. But the system of road transport was dependent on the Roman, Chinese, and Mauryan empires, and, as these great empires declined in the early Christian era, the trade routes became routes of invasion. Except in…
India The Indus civilization in Sindh, Balochistฤn, and the Punjab probably flourished in the period 3250โ2750 BC. Excavations indicate that the cities of this civilization paved their major streets with burned bricks cemented with bitumen. Great attention was devoted to drainage. The houses had drainpipes that carried the water to a street drain in the centre of the street,…
The Amber Routes During the 2nd millennium BC, trade ways developed in Europe. One route, for example, ran between Italy and Spain via Marseille and nearby Heraclea, close to present-day Avignon, France. Such ways were used for the movement of flints from Denmark, freestone from Belgium, salt from Austria, lead and tin from England, and amber from…
Roads and highways, traveled way on which people, animals, or wheeled vehicles move. In modern usage the term road describes a rural, lesser traveled way, while the word street denotes an urban roadway. Highway refers to a major rural traveled way; more recently it has been used for a road, in either a rural or urban area, where points of entrance and…
Military technology, range of weapons, equipment, structures, and vehicles used specifically for the purpose of warfare. It includes the knowledge required to construct such technology, to employ it in combat, and to repair and replenish it. Red ArmyCold War-era poster of Soviet army equipment. The technology of war may be divided into five categories. Offensive arms harm…