All the distances required for making a plan are the horizontal distances. Hence in the field horizontal distances are measured or sufficient readings are taken to calculate horizontal distances. In this chapter the methods used for linear measurements are explained. Method of preparing a plan using only linear measurements is by conducting chain surveying. METHODS…
Various technical terms used in connection with the network of the triangles in surveying are explained below: Station: Station is a point of importance at the beginning or at the end of a survey line. Main station: These are the stations at the beginning or at the end of lines forming main skeleton. They are denoted as…
Earlier blasts reminded us of demolitions of buildings in the US. But now, blasting reminds us of 9/11 and terrorist attacks. Post 9/11, governments have started emphasizing the need for blast containment designs that help in minimizing blast injuries. Terrorism has threatened the internal security of many countries, including the US. In the last decade,…
The need of the hour is to make the public aware of the consequences of the environmental degradation, if not corrected and reformative measures undertaken, would result in the extinction of life. It is also necessary to face the various environmental challenges and to act accordingly to make the acts eco-friendly. The major challenges ahead…
People have been building dams since prerecorded history for a wide variety of economically valuable purposes including water supply, flood control, and hydroelectric power. Back in the 1950s and 60s, the U.S. saw a boom in infrastructure development, and dams were being built with little regard to their impacts on rivers and the environment. By the 1970s,…
The damages and loses caused by earthquakes are increased as urbanization increased in past decades. However, scientists currently cannot predict the time, location and magnitude of an earthquake accurately. Currently, the earthquake predictions are not yet reliable, so long-term probabilistic earthquake hazard analysis and rapid post-earthquake early warning are two alternative solutions to reduce potential…
While the least important structurally, sometimes the most important step in finishing a building construction project is the outer skin. These coverings, known as cloaks, claddings, and/or facades, can be a welcome sight when selected and applied correctly, or a dangerous eyesore otherwise. Beautiful Skin, Not Too Deep An important finishing step in building construction…
Rumble strips whether used on edges or centerline of roads are considered a road safety feature as the vibration and rumbling that they produce help to alert drivers who are inattentive. Rumble Strips as Safety Devices Rumble strips and centerline rumble strips are being used to reduce accidents and warn inattentive drivers. Rumble strips can even be laid across…
Natural resources are those resources that occur within the environment in their original and natural form, undisturbed by humanity. They take years to form without the intervention of humans. The Mother Earth is abundant with natural resources that develop on this planet using its surrounding environment. These natural resources are derived from the environment. While few of them…
Bridge construction has been improved tremendously with the advancement in science and technology. Better and lighter materials are now available that can endure greater loads. The construction is now much faster due to the introduction of a variety of heavy construction equipment. Bridge Construction Planning Bridge construction tends to involve huge projects that encompass the…