Instead of plastering entire surface of the masonry, special mortar finishing work is done to the exposed joints. This is called pointing. It consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 mm to 20 mm and filling it with richer mortar mixes. In case of lime mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 2 and…
Principle of planning involves planning for meeting the following requirements also: 1. Sanitary convenience 2. Prospects 3. Elegance 4. Flexibility 5. Privacy 6. Resistance to fire 7. Sound insulation 8. Protection from termite 9. Security against burglary 10. Economy 11. Provisions for future alterations. 1. Sanitary Convenience: Sanitary conveniences include provision of bathrooms, lavatories,urinals etc. Provision of these…
Air law, the body of law directly or indirectly concerned with civil aviation. Aviation in this context extends to both heavier-than-air and lighter-than-air aircraft. Air-cushion vehicles are not regarded as aircraft by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), but the practice of individual states in this regard is not yet settled. The earliest legislation in air law was a…
Beginning in the 1840s, the rapid development of railroads brought the construction of lightweight Trésaguet-McAdam roads to a virtual halt. For the next 60 years, road improvements were essentially confined to city streets or to feeder roads to railheads. Other rural roads became impassable in wet weather. The initial stimulus for a renewal of road…
The hydrostatic distribution of pore pressures is valid when the groundwater is at rest. When the groundwater is flowing through the soil the pressure distribution will not be hydrostatic, because then the equations of equilibrium (6.1) are no longer complete. The flow of groundwater through the pore space is accompanied by a friction force between…
Pollution is derived from Latin word ‘polluere’ which means ‘to contaminate’ any feature of environment. Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings. This occurs only when short term economic gains are made at the cost of long term ecological benefits of humanity….
Transportation, the movement of goods and persons from place to place and the various means by which such movement is accomplished. The growth of the ability—and the need—to transport large quantities of goods or numbers of people over long distances at high speeds in comfort and safety has been an index of civilization and in particular of…
Construction of highways and railways is challenging around mountains and steep slopes. Each require special study by geologists and geotechnical engineers. Through geotechnical analysis, slopes are identified that are critical and require special protection. The “Rockfall Hazard Rating System” for the Federal Highway Administration was introduced by the Oregon State Highway Division. It is used to…
Energy efficiency is coming to the forefront in the architecture, as, apart from the significance of a reduced environmental impact and increased comfort for users, the current energy crisis and economic recession has bumped up the importance of the financial cost of energy. Since the Kyoto Protocol was signed in 1997, governments all over the…
Random Rubble Masonry is slightly superior to uncoursed rubble masonry. In this form the stones used in the work are hammer or chisel-dressed. The stones are not suitably shaped or finished and as such the elevation of this type of stone masonry shows irregular shaped stones with non-uniform joints. In a good work the face stones…